These motifs are known as Uhunmwu Ikpotoki in Edo, which translates as ‘Portuguese head’ in English. Portraits of Portuguese men, featuring only their heads and sometimes their shoulders, were used by artists as motifs on the Emwin Arre (royal treasures), in particular on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and Aken'ni Elao (carved altar tusks). Also included here are a series of two or three conjoined spirals, which are interpreted as abstract forms of this motif.

One of the earliest suggestions that many of the European figures depicted on objects were Portuguese was made two years after the 1897 British Colonial Military Campaign on Benin City by the British Museum curators Charles Hercules Read and Ormonde Maddock Dalton, based on testimony from seven chiefs in the aftermath of the military campaign. The long, straight hair, beards, and domed hats together led to the identification of these representations as Europeans.

When included within the visual imagery of the Emwin Arhe, the Portuguese are associated with the new Atlantic trade and the consequent wealth that emerged following first contact with the Portuguese in the late 15th century. For this reason, Portuguese heads are also often associated with the sea deity Olokun. Eisenhofer argued that the Portuguese figures and heads as motifs on the royal treasures are symbols of the king’s power: “these depictions of foreigners helped to build and strengthen the king’s image.”

When incorporated into the design of the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), Curnow instead argued that these motifs could in fact indicate events that took place during Ọba Esigie’s reign. Ọba Esigie is associated with the Portuguese, as they became increasingly important during his reign, assisting with battles against the Igala from Idah, bringing Catholicism to Benin, and introducing weaponry such as guns and cannons, which were instrumental in the expansion of the kingdom.

Many different kinds of Ẹrhu (headwear) are worn by the various figures depicted in the imagery of Benin royal artefacts. Through comparisons with ceremonial regalia still worn by chiefs and members of the royal court, including the Ọba himself, some Ẹrhu have been used to identify the different figures depicted. For example, the conical hat worn by high-ranking town chiefs as part of the pangolin regalia, still worn at ceremonies, is also visible on figures on some Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques). Other examples include the distinctive bell-shaped helmet associated with the Iyasẹ. Figures who wear a shallow-brimmed hat and a cross have been identified as Ewua or Ohensa priests.

Different kinds of helmets and headwear were worn by warriors, reflecting the many different ranks and roles in the army at any given time, as well as developing trends that were in turn represented on Emwin Arhe created at different points in time. Warrior figures wearing helmets covered in cowrie shells were carved on the Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks) (Blackmun 1984, p. 330), yet on the brass Ama, warriors are sometimes depicted wearing helmets made from crocodile hide or horsehair with a front plate (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Helmets made from horsehair with a front plate are one of the more common types represented on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn, and the demand for black horse tails was noted by both Portuguese and British traders during the late 17th and 18th centuries (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Other warriors depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn wear helmets with a rounded top, chinstrap, and sometimes also a feather tucked into the left side. These types of headwear are known as Ẹrhu Iyokuo.

Attire worn for battle also differed from that worn for ceremonial occasions, such as the pointed headwear worn in combination with an ornate leopard-head tunic by war chiefs. Depictions of figures wearing this attire on brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) have been interpreted as representing the war chiefs’ participation in the war-ritual Isiokuo festival (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457).

Another distinctive form of headwear is that worn by figures identified as leopard hunters on the brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (relief plaques). These large helmets cover almost all of the leopard hunters’ faces except for their noses, eyes, and upper lips, and are made of an unusual material that remains unidentifiable (Plankensteiner 2007, cat. nos. 68–69, p. 322).

European figures are also portrayed with distinctive hats, such as Portuguese three-cornered hats. These depictions reflect the artists’ keen observation and highlight the impact of European trade and military assistance (Ezra 1992).

During the late 15th century, European visitors began arriving in Benin City and subsequently played important roles in trade, the military, religion, and belief. Edo artists incorporated a range of figures understood to represent Europeans into the visual language of Emwin Arre (royal treasures). These depictions served in part to communicate the power and reach of the Benin monarchy, making the “greatness of ruler and realm more palpable” and demonstrating that the Ọba’s authority extended beyond his own people to those who came from distant lands.

European visitors came from a number of countries, including the Netherlands, Britain, France, and Italy. Portuguese visitors, however, had the most extensive and enduring influence, which is particularly evident in the visual language of Benin royal arts.

European figures were incorporated into Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), dating primarily to the 16th and 17th centuries, and Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks), dating from the 17th to the 19th centuries. They are typically depicted with straight, shoulder-length hair and/or beards, rounded cap-like headwear, heavily pleated skirts, and jerkins. These figures often appear alongside other motifs associated with European trade and contact, such as Ugianranran (manillas) and horses, or with warfare, such as firearms. In addition to full-length figures, the Uhunmwu Ikpotoki (Portuguese head) was incorporated into a wide range of objects, most likely as a symbol of power and wealth associated with overseas trade and, by extension, with Olokun, the deity of the sea.

European figures also became part of the visual language developed by the Emada, palace pages whose carving tradition differed from that of the royal guild of wood and ivory carvers, the Igbesamwan. Although the precise origins of the Emada carving tradition are uncertain, it is thought to have developed during the reign of Ọba Adolo, and many surviving examples are therefore dated to the 19th century. Their representations of Europeans differ from the conventions used in earlier depictions understood to represent Portuguese visitors. Rather than wearing pleated skirts and jerkins, these later figures are typically shown in suits, wide-brimmed hats, and smoking pipes, and may carry straighter, sabre-like swords, guns, or umbrellas.

Ebe Amẹ refers to a wide variety of plants, particularly the leaves of the water fern or river leaf, found in riverine areas of southern Nigeria. Artists from the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn used these as a decorative motif in the background of most Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques). The petals of the Ebe Amẹ, like the points of the ἀghàdàgháda (crossroads), represent the four cardinal directions: north, east, south, and west. The number four plays a foundational role in the Edo calendar, which is structured around four market days.

Akohẹn, or ivory horns, are played by members of the Ikpakoen (guild of ivory hornblowers), while Oko, or flutes, are played by members of the Ikpeziken (guild of royal flute players). Among the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), Oko and Akohẹn are usually depicted being played by brass-cast figures representing members of these guilds, and also appear on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), Aken'ni Elao (carved altar tusks), and Urhotọ (altar tableau).

Today in Benin City, when a public procession leaves the palace, a court official may sound side-blown horns made from ivory. Historically, these instruments were also used during warfare, where they were played alongside Ema (drums) and Ẹroro (bells), producing a “cacophony of sound” whose “[t]he psychological effect of the barrage of noise magnified the size of Benin’s forces”.

Some Oko/Akohẹn were also cast in brass by members of the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn. However, these brass examples are understood not to have been functional instruments and could not have been blown like their ivory counterparts.

Asoro (spears) were used as weapons in battle and for hunting. Ọbazee 2025, p. 37 According to Osadolor, there were two types: long and short. Figures holding Asoro are often depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), sometimes in battle scenes and at ceremonies and festivals.

Ugianranran (manillas) are highly important objects in the visual language of the Emwin Arre (royal treasures). Although Ugianranran were made in a variety of sizes, forms, and weights, they share the characteristics of being made from copper or copper alloys, namely brass or bronze, and having a curved, ring- or horseshoe-shaped form.

In the early years of trade between the Portuguese and Edo, during the late 15th and early 16th centuries, manillas were made primarily of copper. During the early 16th century, Edo traders increasingly sought manillas made of brass. This changing preference is believed to have corresponded with the growing demand for brass among artists of the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn. During the 17th and early 18th centuries, the Dutch also traded manillas with the Edo, although to a lesser extent than the Portuguese. Recent scientific analysis has shown similarities between the composition of metals in manillas from the southern Rhineland region of Germany and the copper alloys used in some Emwin Arhe, supporting earlier scholarship suggesting that manillas were used by casters to produce Emwin Arhe.Skowronek et al. 2023

When depicted on objects, Ugianranran are often shown alongside or being held by figures identified as Portuguese. In one case, figures identified as Benin traders or royal emissaries are shown holding manillas in their hands.( This is particularly the case on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), which are believed to have been commissioned by Ọba Esigie. Esigie is understood to have encouraged the production of artworks, made possible in part by the increased supply of manillas and other copper-alloy objects resulting from trade. Ugianranran are therefore associated with overseas trade, wealth, and Olokun, the deity of the seas. In addition to being held by figures or appearing alongside them on artworks, Ugianranran sometimes serve as focal decorative motifs, further indicating their symbolic and economic potency.