The Ubanu'hi (infinity symbol) is a kind of guilloche or interlaced strapwork motif that can be angular or rounded. It was used by Edo artists in the decoration of many Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) and is ubiquitous in Benin royal arts. Ubanu'hi is a shortened form of “uba no Ọba ya de agbon ke ehimwin yi”, which means “the rope with which the Ọba ties the heaven and earth together” (pers. comm. Chief John Igbineweka Inneh n’Igbesawman, 2022). Similarly, Paula Ben-Amos Girshick described this as “Ọba n’iri agbon”, or the “rope of the world” pattern.

According to Ọbabanmu Ineh, the use of this motif indicates that objects were carved by members of the Igbesanmwan. However, the motif is found on all types of Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), not only those made of ivory or wood. On the flanges of the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (relief plaques) alone, Kathryn Gunsch identified three different versions of the Ubanu'hi and, through her analysis of over 850 plaques, found that these different Ubanu'hi forms align with other characteristics, such as dimensions, the prevalence of ornamental motifs, and stylistic qualities. Together, these provide evidence, she argues, of different production groups among the plaque makers.

Kate Ezra went on to argue that the use of these motifs indicates that certain objects were used in a “royal context” and were associated with “royal patronage”.

Ubanu’hi can also be spelt Obanu'hi, indicating different intonations in the pronunciation of the words.

Figures wearing a headdress with a single protrusion from the crown of the head, known as the Oro, are found only among the Ọba and a select category of palace dignitaries whose ancestors originated in ancient Ile Ife. Ọbazee 2025, p. 407 Only the Osa and Osuan, custodians of the Uwen and Ora deities, as well as members of the Emuru, who are responsible for the care of Iru vessels, may wear a headdress with the Oro. The identification of different figures is therefore interpreted based on the combination of the Oro with other items of regalia. Artists in the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn and Igbesamwan depicted figures with the Oro on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks), respectively. The Oro would either be made of coral beads as part of the crown or headdress, or be woven from itoto fibre.

Ukpọn is the Edo term for clothỌbazee 2025, p. 542and is used here to refer to the wrappers or kilts worn by many of the figures depicted on the Emwin Arre (royal treasures). The cloth worn around the waist may be plain, but it is more commonly richly decorated with motifs associated with the monarchy, power, and wealth, such as the Ọba'nui (infinity symbol) and Uhunme Ikpotoki (Portuguese heads).

The Benin Kingdom was renowned for its textile production, both for local use and for trade. Within the royal court, members of the Owina n’Ido produced ukhuen cloth for the Ọba and other members of the court, who wore it as wrappers during festivals and ceremonies.

Alongside locally produced textiles, imported cloth was also an important commodity in the Benin Kingdom’s trade networks. Textiles were exchanged with neighbouring production centres, particularly Ijebu, while European traders brought silks, woollens, linens, and cotton from Europe and Asia from the 15th century onwards.

Ọba gha ye Ivie gie ọwan, ẹ ghi tama rẹn ehe nọ gha bae yi (When the Ọba gifts you a bead, he doesn’t tell you how to wear it) (Daniel Inneh, pers. comm., 27 September 2025).

Iviawẹ (also spelled ĺvîowẹ) are coral-beaded anklets, often worn stacked together. Ọbazee 2025, p. 279 Many of the figures depicted on the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) in brass, bronze, ivory, and wood are shown wearing these. According to Daniel Inneh (pers. comm., 27 September 2025), beads were sent to people whom the Ọba wished to honour, although there was no directive on how to wear them.

Mostly, people who wear Iviawẹ are identified as palace chiefs or priests and priestesses. However, today anyone can wear them as cultural identifiers or fashion pieces.

Ikharo are linear keloid markings depicted on the forehead of Uhunmwu-Elao (commemorative heads) in groups of three or four above each eye. The exact meaning of Ikharo is debated; some have argued that they relate to the gender or tribal identification of the person on whom they are depicted. For example, Gabriel Ọbazee2025, p. 250 has argued that they were worn only by men; however, their use in depictions is not consistent with this, and the Iy’Ọba are also shown wearing them. Flora Kaplan argued that they are instead a stylistic feature employed by artists that varied over time.

The naming of these markings differs between publications. For example, Ekhaguosa Aisien and Joseph Nevadomsky describe these markings as “agbaguda n'ehae”, which they write translates literally as “blades of the forehead”. However, Aisien later went on to call these “ikharo”, as used here. Kate Ezra referred to these forehead markings as ikharo, meaning “tribal mark [of eye]”.

Odigba (coral-beaded collar) is a rigid neck collar made of coral beads, worn as part of ceremonial attire only by senior princes who have been made Enigie. Although Ibafe (2007, p. 43) argued that the Odigba was introduced during the Ogiso period (c. 900–c. 1170 AD) by Ogiso Ere, along with other symbolically important Emwin Arhe, such as the Ada (ceremonial sword) and the Ẹbẹn (ceremonial sword), this seems unlikely, as coral was only introduced in the late 15th century through trade with Portuguese merchants.

These motifs are known as Uhunmwu Ikpotoki in Edo, which translates as ‘Portuguese head’ in English. Portraits of Portuguese men, featuring only their heads and sometimes their shoulders, were used by artists as motifs on the Emwin Arre (royal treasures), in particular on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and Aken'ni Elao (carved altar tusks). Also included here are a series of two or three conjoined spirals, which are interpreted as abstract forms of this motif.

One of the earliest suggestions that many of the European figures depicted on objects were Portuguese was made two years after the 1897 British Colonial Military Campaign on Benin City by the British Museum curators Charles Hercules Read and Ormonde Maddock Dalton, based on testimony from seven chiefs in the aftermath of the military campaign. The long, straight hair, beards, and domed hats together led to the identification of these representations as Europeans.

When included within the visual imagery of the Emwin Arhe, the Portuguese are associated with the new Atlantic trade and the consequent wealth that emerged following first contact with the Portuguese in the late 15th century. For this reason, Portuguese heads are also often associated with the sea deity Olokun. Eisenhofer argued that the Portuguese figures and heads as motifs on the royal treasures are symbols of the king’s power: “these depictions of foreigners helped to build and strengthen the king’s image.”

When incorporated into the design of the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), Curnow instead argued that these motifs could in fact indicate events that took place during Ọba Esigie’s reign. Ọba Esigie is associated with the Portuguese, as they became increasingly important during his reign, assisting with battles against the Igala from Idah, bringing Catholicism to Benin, and introducing weaponry such as guns and cannons, which were instrumental in the expansion of the kingdom.

Ebe Amẹ refers to a wide variety of plants, particularly the leaves of the water fern or river leaf, found in riverine areas of southern Nigeria. Artists from the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn used these as a decorative motif in the background of most Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques). The petals of the Ebe Amẹ, like the points of the ἀghàdàgháda (crossroads), represent the four cardinal directions: north, east, south, and west. The number four plays a foundational role in the Edo calendar, which is structured around four market days.

Spherical rattles made from gourds and covered with nets, known as Ukusẹ, are held in both hands by some figures depicted on Emwin Arre (royal treasures). Barbara Blackmun noted that these rattles are unusually spherical and smaller than the gourd rattles used today, suggesting that they may have had a particular significance. The Ọba is sometimes depicted holding such a rattle while “wearing an empowering necklace and his most elaborate crown.” On this basis, Blackmun argued that the “spherical rattle of diminutive size and shape may have been employed to heal, or to bring about other transformation”.